Removed the Requirement to Install Python and NodeJS (Now Bundled with Borealis)
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<li><a class="reference internal" href="#">4. Execution model</a><ul>
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<li><a class="reference internal" href="#structure-of-a-program">4.1. Structure of a program</a></li>
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<li><a class="reference internal" href="#naming-and-binding">4.2. Naming and binding</a><ul>
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<li><a class="reference internal" href="#binding-of-names">4.2.1. Binding of names</a></li>
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<li><a class="reference internal" href="#resolution-of-names">4.2.2. Resolution of names</a></li>
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<li><a class="reference internal" href="#annotation-scopes">4.2.3. Annotation scopes</a></li>
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<li><a class="reference internal" href="#lazy-evaluation">4.2.4. Lazy evaluation</a></li>
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<li><a class="reference internal" href="#exceptions">4.3. Exceptions</a></li>
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<section id="execution-model">
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<span id="execmodel"></span><h1><span class="section-number">4. </span>Execution model<a class="headerlink" href="#execution-model" title="Link to this heading">¶</a></h1>
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<section id="structure-of-a-program">
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<span id="prog-structure"></span><span id="index-0"></span><h2><span class="section-number">4.1. </span>Structure of a program<a class="headerlink" href="#structure-of-a-program" title="Link to this heading">¶</a></h2>
|
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<p id="index-1">A Python program is constructed from code blocks.
|
||||
A <em class="dfn">block</em> is a piece of Python program text that is executed as a unit.
|
||||
The following are blocks: a module, a function body, and a class definition.
|
||||
Each command typed interactively is a block. A script file (a file given as
|
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standard input to the interpreter or specified as a command line argument to the
|
||||
interpreter) is a code block. A script command (a command specified on the
|
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interpreter command line with the <a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-c"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-c</span></code></a> option) is a code block.
|
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A module run as a top level script (as module <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__main__</span></code>) from the command
|
||||
line using a <a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-m"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-m</span></code></a> argument is also a code block. The string
|
||||
argument passed to the built-in functions <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#eval" title="eval"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">eval()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#exec" title="exec"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">exec()</span></code></a> is a
|
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code block.</p>
|
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<p id="index-2">A code block is executed in an <em class="dfn">execution frame</em>. A frame contains some
|
||||
administrative information (used for debugging) and determines where and how
|
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execution continues after the code block’s execution has completed.</p>
|
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</section>
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<section id="naming-and-binding">
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<span id="naming"></span><h2><span class="section-number">4.2. </span>Naming and binding<a class="headerlink" href="#naming-and-binding" title="Link to this heading">¶</a></h2>
|
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<section id="binding-of-names">
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<span id="bind-names"></span><span id="index-3"></span><h3><span class="section-number">4.2.1. </span>Binding of names<a class="headerlink" href="#binding-of-names" title="Link to this heading">¶</a></h3>
|
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<p id="index-4"><em class="dfn">Names</em> refer to objects. Names are introduced by name binding operations.</p>
|
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<p id="index-5">The following constructs bind names:</p>
|
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<ul class="simple">
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||||
<li><p>formal parameters to functions,</p></li>
|
||||
<li><p>class definitions,</p></li>
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||||
<li><p>function definitions,</p></li>
|
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<li><p>assignment expressions,</p></li>
|
||||
<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="simple_stmts.html#assignment"><span class="std std-ref">targets</span></a> that are identifiers if occurring in
|
||||
an assignment:</p>
|
||||
<ul>
|
||||
<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="compound_stmts.html#for"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">for</span></code></a> loop header,</p></li>
|
||||
<li><p>after <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">as</span></code> in a <a class="reference internal" href="compound_stmts.html#with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code></a> statement, <a class="reference internal" href="compound_stmts.html#except"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">except</span></code></a>
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||||
clause, <a class="reference internal" href="compound_stmts.html#except-star"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">except*</span></code></a> clause, or in the as-pattern in structural pattern matching,</p></li>
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<li><p>in a capture pattern in structural pattern matching</p></li>
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</ul>
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<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="simple_stmts.html#import"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">import</span></code></a> statements.</p></li>
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<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="simple_stmts.html#type"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">type</span></code></a> statements.</p></li>
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<li><p><a class="reference internal" href="compound_stmts.html#type-params"><span class="std std-ref">type parameter lists</span></a>.</p></li>
|
||||
</ul>
|
||||
<p>The <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">import</span></code> statement of the form <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">from</span> <span class="pre">...</span> <span class="pre">import</span> <span class="pre">*</span></code> binds all
|
||||
names defined in the imported module, except those beginning with an underscore.
|
||||
This form may only be used at the module level.</p>
|
||||
<p>A target occurring in a <a class="reference internal" href="simple_stmts.html#del"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">del</span></code></a> statement is also considered bound for
|
||||
this purpose (though the actual semantics are to unbind the name).</p>
|
||||
<p>Each assignment or import statement occurs within a block defined by a class or
|
||||
function definition or at the module level (the top-level code block).</p>
|
||||
<p id="index-6">If a name is bound in a block, it is a local variable of that block, unless
|
||||
declared as <a class="reference internal" href="simple_stmts.html#nonlocal"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">nonlocal</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="simple_stmts.html#global"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">global</span></code></a>. If a name is bound at
|
||||
the module level, it is a global variable. (The variables of the module code
|
||||
block are local and global.) If a variable is used in a code block but not
|
||||
defined there, it is a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-free-variable"><span class="xref std std-term">free variable</span></a>.</p>
|
||||
<p>Each occurrence of a name in the program text refers to the <em class="dfn">binding</em> of
|
||||
that name established by the following name resolution rules.</p>
|
||||
</section>
|
||||
<section id="resolution-of-names">
|
||||
<span id="resolve-names"></span><h3><span class="section-number">4.2.2. </span>Resolution of names<a class="headerlink" href="#resolution-of-names" title="Link to this heading">¶</a></h3>
|
||||
<p id="index-7">A <em class="dfn">scope</em> defines the visibility of a name within a block. If a local
|
||||
variable is defined in a block, its scope includes that block. If the
|
||||
definition occurs in a function block, the scope extends to any blocks contained
|
||||
within the defining one, unless a contained block introduces a different binding
|
||||
for the name.</p>
|
||||
<p id="index-8">When a name is used in a code block, it is resolved using the nearest enclosing
|
||||
scope. The set of all such scopes visible to a code block is called the block’s
|
||||
<em class="dfn">environment</em>.</p>
|
||||
<p id="index-9">When a name is not found at all, a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#NameError" title="NameError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NameError</span></code></a> exception is raised.
|
||||
If the current scope is a function scope, and the name refers to a local
|
||||
variable that has not yet been bound to a value at the point where the name is
|
||||
used, an <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#UnboundLocalError" title="UnboundLocalError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UnboundLocalError</span></code></a> exception is raised.
|
||||
<a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#UnboundLocalError" title="UnboundLocalError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UnboundLocalError</span></code></a> is a subclass of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#NameError" title="NameError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NameError</span></code></a>.</p>
|
||||
<p>If a name binding operation occurs anywhere within a code block, all uses of the
|
||||
name within the block are treated as references to the current block. This can
|
||||
lead to errors when a name is used within a block before it is bound. This rule
|
||||
is subtle. Python lacks declarations and allows name binding operations to
|
||||
occur anywhere within a code block. The local variables of a code block can be
|
||||
determined by scanning the entire text of the block for name binding operations.
|
||||
See <a class="reference internal" href="../faq/programming.html#faq-unboundlocalerror"><span class="std std-ref">the FAQ entry on UnboundLocalError</span></a>
|
||||
for examples.</p>
|
||||
<p>If the <a class="reference internal" href="simple_stmts.html#global"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">global</span></code></a> statement occurs within a block, all uses of the names
|
||||
specified in the statement refer to the bindings of those names in the top-level
|
||||
namespace. Names are resolved in the top-level namespace by searching the
|
||||
global namespace, i.e. the namespace of the module containing the code block,
|
||||
and the builtins namespace, the namespace of the module <a class="reference internal" href="../library/builtins.html#module-builtins" title="builtins: The module that provides the built-in namespace."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">builtins</span></code></a>. The
|
||||
global namespace is searched first. If the names are not found there, the
|
||||
builtins namespace is searched next. If the names are also not found in the
|
||||
builtins namespace, new variables are created in the global namespace.
|
||||
The global statement must precede all uses of the listed names.</p>
|
||||
<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="simple_stmts.html#global"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">global</span></code></a> statement has the same scope as a name binding operation
|
||||
in the same block. If the nearest enclosing scope for a free variable contains
|
||||
a global statement, the free variable is treated as a global.</p>
|
||||
<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="simple_stmts.html#nonlocal"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">nonlocal</span></code></a> statement causes corresponding names to refer
|
||||
to previously bound variables in the nearest enclosing function scope.
|
||||
<a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#SyntaxError" title="SyntaxError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SyntaxError</span></code></a> is raised at compile time if the given name does not
|
||||
exist in any enclosing function scope. <a class="reference internal" href="compound_stmts.html#type-params"><span class="std std-ref">Type parameters</span></a>
|
||||
cannot be rebound with the <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">nonlocal</span></code> statement.</p>
|
||||
<p id="index-10">The namespace for a module is automatically created the first time a module is
|
||||
imported. The main module for a script is always called <a class="reference internal" href="../library/__main__.html#module-__main__" title="__main__: The environment where top-level code is run. Covers command-line interfaces, import-time behavior, and ``__name__ == '__main__'``."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__main__</span></code></a>.</p>
|
||||
<p>Class definition blocks and arguments to <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#exec" title="exec"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">exec()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#eval" title="eval"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">eval()</span></code></a> are
|
||||
special in the context of name resolution.
|
||||
A class definition is an executable statement that may use and define names.
|
||||
These references follow the normal rules for name resolution with an exception
|
||||
that unbound local variables are looked up in the global namespace.
|
||||
The namespace of the class definition becomes the attribute dictionary of
|
||||
the class. The scope of names defined in a class block is limited to the
|
||||
class block; it does not extend to the code blocks of methods. This includes
|
||||
comprehensions and generator expressions, but it does not include
|
||||
<a class="reference internal" href="#annotation-scopes"><span class="std std-ref">annotation scopes</span></a>,
|
||||
which have access to their enclosing class scopes.
|
||||
This means that the following will fail:</p>
|
||||
<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">class</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="nc">A</span><span class="p">:</span>
|
||||
<span class="n">a</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">42</span>
|
||||
<span class="n">b</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">list</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">a</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">))</span>
|
||||
</pre></div>
|
||||
</div>
|
||||
<p>However, the following will succeed:</p>
|
||||
<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">class</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="nc">A</span><span class="p">:</span>
|
||||
<span class="nb">type</span> <span class="n">Alias</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Nested</span>
|
||||
<span class="k">class</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="nc">Nested</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="k">pass</span>
|
||||
|
||||
<span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">A</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Alias</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">__value__</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="c1"># <type 'A.Nested'></span>
|
||||
</pre></div>
|
||||
</div>
|
||||
</section>
|
||||
<section id="annotation-scopes">
|
||||
<span id="id1"></span><h3><span class="section-number">4.2.3. </span>Annotation scopes<a class="headerlink" href="#annotation-scopes" title="Link to this heading">¶</a></h3>
|
||||
<p><a class="reference internal" href="compound_stmts.html#type-params"><span class="std std-ref">Type parameter lists</span></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="simple_stmts.html#type"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">type</span></code></a> statements
|
||||
introduce <em>annotation scopes</em>, which behave mostly like function scopes,
|
||||
but with some exceptions discussed below. <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-annotation"><span class="xref std std-term">Annotations</span></a>
|
||||
currently do not use annotation scopes, but they are expected to use
|
||||
annotation scopes in Python 3.13 when <span class="target" id="index-11"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://peps.python.org/pep-0649/"><strong>PEP 649</strong></a> is implemented.</p>
|
||||
<p>Annotation scopes are used in the following contexts:</p>
|
||||
<ul class="simple">
|
||||
<li><p>Type parameter lists for <a class="reference internal" href="compound_stmts.html#generic-type-aliases"><span class="std std-ref">generic type aliases</span></a>.</p></li>
|
||||
<li><p>Type parameter lists for <a class="reference internal" href="compound_stmts.html#generic-functions"><span class="std std-ref">generic functions</span></a>.
|
||||
A generic function’s annotations are
|
||||
executed within the annotation scope, but its defaults and decorators are not.</p></li>
|
||||
<li><p>Type parameter lists for <a class="reference internal" href="compound_stmts.html#generic-classes"><span class="std std-ref">generic classes</span></a>.
|
||||
A generic class’s base classes and
|
||||
keyword arguments are executed within the annotation scope, but its decorators are not.</p></li>
|
||||
<li><p>The bounds, constraints, and default values for type parameters
|
||||
(<a class="reference internal" href="#lazy-evaluation"><span class="std std-ref">lazily evaluated</span></a>).</p></li>
|
||||
<li><p>The value of type aliases (<a class="reference internal" href="#lazy-evaluation"><span class="std std-ref">lazily evaluated</span></a>).</p></li>
|
||||
</ul>
|
||||
<p>Annotation scopes differ from function scopes in the following ways:</p>
|
||||
<ul class="simple">
|
||||
<li><p>Annotation scopes have access to their enclosing class namespace.
|
||||
If an annotation scope is immediately within a class scope, or within another
|
||||
annotation scope that is immediately within a class scope, the code in the
|
||||
annotation scope can use names defined in the class scope as if it were
|
||||
executed directly within the class body. This contrasts with regular
|
||||
functions defined within classes, which cannot access names defined in the class scope.</p></li>
|
||||
<li><p>Expressions in annotation scopes cannot contain <a class="reference internal" href="simple_stmts.html#yield"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">yield</span></code></a>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">yield</span> <span class="pre">from</span></code>,
|
||||
<a class="reference internal" href="expressions.html#await"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">await</span></code></a>, or <a class="reference internal" href="expressions.html#grammar-token-python-grammar-assignment_expression"><code class="xref std std-token docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">:=</span></code></a>
|
||||
expressions. (These expressions are allowed in other scopes contained within the
|
||||
annotation scope.)</p></li>
|
||||
<li><p>Names defined in annotation scopes cannot be rebound with <a class="reference internal" href="simple_stmts.html#nonlocal"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">nonlocal</span></code></a>
|
||||
statements in inner scopes. This includes only type parameters, as no other
|
||||
syntactic elements that can appear within annotation scopes can introduce new names.</p></li>
|
||||
<li><p>While annotation scopes have an internal name, that name is not reflected in the
|
||||
<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-qualified-name"><span class="xref std std-term">qualified name</span></a> of objects defined within the scope.
|
||||
Instead, the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#definition.__qualname__" title="definition.__qualname__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__qualname__</span></code></a>
|
||||
of such objects is as if the object were defined in the enclosing scope.</p></li>
|
||||
</ul>
|
||||
<div class="versionadded">
|
||||
<p><span class="versionmodified added">Added in version 3.12: </span>Annotation scopes were introduced in Python 3.12 as part of <span class="target" id="index-12"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://peps.python.org/pep-0695/"><strong>PEP 695</strong></a>.</p>
|
||||
</div>
|
||||
<div class="versionchanged">
|
||||
<p><span class="versionmodified changed">Changed in version 3.13: </span>Annotation scopes are also used for type parameter defaults, as
|
||||
introduced by <span class="target" id="index-13"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://peps.python.org/pep-0696/"><strong>PEP 696</strong></a>.</p>
|
||||
</div>
|
||||
</section>
|
||||
<section id="lazy-evaluation">
|
||||
<span id="id2"></span><h3><span class="section-number">4.2.4. </span>Lazy evaluation<a class="headerlink" href="#lazy-evaluation" title="Link to this heading">¶</a></h3>
|
||||
<p>The values of type aliases created through the <a class="reference internal" href="simple_stmts.html#type"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">type</span></code></a> statement are
|
||||
<em>lazily evaluated</em>. The same applies to the bounds, constraints, and default values of type
|
||||
variables created through the <a class="reference internal" href="compound_stmts.html#type-params"><span class="std std-ref">type parameter syntax</span></a>.
|
||||
This means that they are not evaluated when the type alias or type variable is
|
||||
created. Instead, they are only evaluated when doing so is necessary to resolve
|
||||
an attribute access.</p>
|
||||
<p>Example:</p>
|
||||
<div class="highlight-pycon notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="nb">type</span> <span class="n">Alias</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="mi">0</span>
|
||||
<span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">Alias</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">__value__</span>
|
||||
<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
|
||||
<span class="w"> </span><span class="c">...</span>
|
||||
<span class="gr">ZeroDivisionError</span>: <span class="n">division by zero</span>
|
||||
<span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="k">def</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="nf">func</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">T</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">]():</span> <span class="k">pass</span>
|
||||
<span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">T</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">func</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">__type_params__</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">]</span>
|
||||
<span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">T</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">__bound__</span>
|
||||
<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
|
||||
<span class="w"> </span><span class="c">...</span>
|
||||
<span class="gr">ZeroDivisionError</span>: <span class="n">division by zero</span>
|
||||
</pre></div>
|
||||
</div>
|
||||
<p>Here the exception is raised only when the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__value__</span></code> attribute
|
||||
of the type alias or the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__bound__</span></code> attribute of the type variable
|
||||
is accessed.</p>
|
||||
<p>This behavior is primarily useful for references to types that have not
|
||||
yet been defined when the type alias or type variable is created. For example,
|
||||
lazy evaluation enables creation of mutually recursive type aliases:</p>
|
||||
<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="nn">typing</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="n">Literal</span>
|
||||
|
||||
<span class="nb">type</span> <span class="n">SimpleExpr</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">int</span> <span class="o">|</span> <span class="n">Parenthesized</span>
|
||||
<span class="nb">type</span> <span class="n">Parenthesized</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">tuple</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">Literal</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s2">"("</span><span class="p">],</span> <span class="n">Expr</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">Literal</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s2">")"</span><span class="p">]]</span>
|
||||
<span class="nb">type</span> <span class="n">Expr</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">SimpleExpr</span> <span class="o">|</span> <span class="nb">tuple</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">SimpleExpr</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">Literal</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s2">"+"</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">"-"</span><span class="p">],</span> <span class="n">Expr</span><span class="p">]</span>
|
||||
</pre></div>
|
||||
</div>
|
||||
<p>Lazily evaluated values are evaluated in <a class="reference internal" href="#annotation-scopes"><span class="std std-ref">annotation scope</span></a>,
|
||||
which means that names that appear inside the lazily evaluated value are looked up
|
||||
as if they were used in the immediately enclosing scope.</p>
|
||||
<div class="versionadded">
|
||||
<p><span class="versionmodified added">Added in version 3.12.</span></p>
|
||||
</div>
|
||||
</section>
|
||||
<section id="builtins-and-restricted-execution">
|
||||
<span id="restrict-exec"></span><h3><span class="section-number">4.2.5. </span>Builtins and restricted execution<a class="headerlink" href="#builtins-and-restricted-execution" title="Link to this heading">¶</a></h3>
|
||||
<div class="impl-detail compound" id="index-14">
|
||||
<p><strong>CPython implementation detail:</strong> Users should not touch <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__builtins__</span></code>; it is strictly an implementation
|
||||
detail. Users wanting to override values in the builtins namespace should
|
||||
<a class="reference internal" href="simple_stmts.html#import"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">import</span></code></a> the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/builtins.html#module-builtins" title="builtins: The module that provides the built-in namespace."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">builtins</span></code></a> module and modify its
|
||||
attributes appropriately.</p>
|
||||
</div>
|
||||
<p>The builtins namespace associated with the execution of a code block
|
||||
is actually found by looking up the name <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__builtins__</span></code> in its
|
||||
global namespace; this should be a dictionary or a module (in the
|
||||
latter case the module’s dictionary is used). By default, when in the
|
||||
<a class="reference internal" href="../library/__main__.html#module-__main__" title="__main__: The environment where top-level code is run. Covers command-line interfaces, import-time behavior, and ``__name__ == '__main__'``."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__main__</span></code></a> module, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__builtins__</span></code> is the built-in module
|
||||
<a class="reference internal" href="../library/builtins.html#module-builtins" title="builtins: The module that provides the built-in namespace."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">builtins</span></code></a>; when in any other module, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__builtins__</span></code> is an
|
||||
alias for the dictionary of the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/builtins.html#module-builtins" title="builtins: The module that provides the built-in namespace."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">builtins</span></code></a> module itself.</p>
|
||||
</section>
|
||||
<section id="interaction-with-dynamic-features">
|
||||
<span id="dynamic-features"></span><h3><span class="section-number">4.2.6. </span>Interaction with dynamic features<a class="headerlink" href="#interaction-with-dynamic-features" title="Link to this heading">¶</a></h3>
|
||||
<p>Name resolution of free variables occurs at runtime, not at compile time.
|
||||
This means that the following code will print 42:</p>
|
||||
<div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">i</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">10</span>
|
||||
<span class="k">def</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="nf">f</span><span class="p">():</span>
|
||||
<span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">i</span><span class="p">)</span>
|
||||
<span class="n">i</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">42</span>
|
||||
<span class="n">f</span><span class="p">()</span>
|
||||
</pre></div>
|
||||
</div>
|
||||
<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#eval" title="eval"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">eval()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#exec" title="exec"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">exec()</span></code></a> functions do not have access to the full
|
||||
environment for resolving names. Names may be resolved in the local and global
|
||||
namespaces of the caller. Free variables are not resolved in the nearest
|
||||
enclosing namespace, but in the global namespace. <a class="footnote-reference brackets" href="#id5" id="id3" role="doc-noteref"><span class="fn-bracket">[</span>1<span class="fn-bracket">]</span></a> The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#exec" title="exec"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">exec()</span></code></a> and
|
||||
<a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#eval" title="eval"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">eval()</span></code></a> functions have optional arguments to override the global and local
|
||||
namespace. If only one namespace is specified, it is used for both.</p>
|
||||
</section>
|
||||
</section>
|
||||
<section id="exceptions">
|
||||
<span id="id4"></span><h2><span class="section-number">4.3. </span>Exceptions<a class="headerlink" href="#exceptions" title="Link to this heading">¶</a></h2>
|
||||
<p id="index-16"><span id="index-15"></span>Exceptions are a means of breaking out of the normal flow of control of a code
|
||||
block in order to handle errors or other exceptional conditions. An exception
|
||||
is <em>raised</em> at the point where the error is detected; it may be <em>handled</em> by the
|
||||
surrounding code block or by any code block that directly or indirectly invoked
|
||||
the code block where the error occurred.</p>
|
||||
<p>The Python interpreter raises an exception when it detects a run-time error
|
||||
(such as division by zero). A Python program can also explicitly raise an
|
||||
exception with the <a class="reference internal" href="simple_stmts.html#raise"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">raise</span></code></a> statement. Exception handlers are specified
|
||||
with the <a class="reference internal" href="compound_stmts.html#try"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">try</span></code></a> … <a class="reference internal" href="compound_stmts.html#except"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">except</span></code></a> statement. The <a class="reference internal" href="compound_stmts.html#finally"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">finally</span></code></a>
|
||||
clause of such a statement can be used to specify cleanup code which does not
|
||||
handle the exception, but is executed whether an exception occurred or not in
|
||||
the preceding code.</p>
|
||||
<p id="index-17">Python uses the “termination” model of error handling: an exception handler can
|
||||
find out what happened and continue execution at an outer level, but it cannot
|
||||
repair the cause of the error and retry the failing operation (except by
|
||||
re-entering the offending piece of code from the top).</p>
|
||||
<p id="index-18">When an exception is not handled at all, the interpreter terminates execution of
|
||||
the program, or returns to its interactive main loop. In either case, it prints
|
||||
a stack traceback, except when the exception is <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#SystemExit" title="SystemExit"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SystemExit</span></code></a>.</p>
|
||||
<p>Exceptions are identified by class instances. The <a class="reference internal" href="compound_stmts.html#except"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">except</span></code></a> clause is
|
||||
selected depending on the class of the instance: it must reference the class of
|
||||
the instance or a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-abstract-base-class"><span class="xref std std-term">non-virtual base class</span></a> thereof.
|
||||
The instance can be received by the handler and can carry additional information
|
||||
about the exceptional condition.</p>
|
||||
<div class="admonition note">
|
||||
<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
|
||||
<p>Exception messages are not part of the Python API. Their contents may change
|
||||
from one version of Python to the next without warning and should not be
|
||||
relied on by code which will run under multiple versions of the interpreter.</p>
|
||||
</div>
|
||||
<p>See also the description of the <a class="reference internal" href="compound_stmts.html#try"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">try</span></code></a> statement in section <a class="reference internal" href="compound_stmts.html#try"><span class="std std-ref">The try statement</span></a>
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<section id="introduction">
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<span id="id1"></span><h1><span class="section-number">1. </span>Introduction<a class="headerlink" href="#introduction" title="Link to this heading">¶</a></h1>
|
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<p>This reference manual describes the Python programming language. It is not
|
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<p>While I am trying to be as precise as possible, I chose to use English rather
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|
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things and in fact you would probably end up implementing quite a different
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language. On the other hand, if you are using Python and wonder what the precise
|
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rules about a particular area of the language are, you should definitely be able
|
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to find them here. If you would like to see a more formal definition of the
|
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language, maybe you could volunteer your time — or invent a cloning machine
|
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:-).</p>
|
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<p>It is dangerous to add too many implementation details to a language reference
|
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document — the implementation may change, and other implementations of the
|
||||
same language may work differently. On the other hand, CPython is the one
|
||||
Python implementation in widespread use (although alternate implementations
|
||||
continue to gain support), and its particular quirks are sometimes worth being
|
||||
mentioned, especially where the implementation imposes additional limitations.
|
||||
Therefore, you’ll find short “implementation notes” sprinkled throughout the
|
||||
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|
||||
<p>Every Python implementation comes with a number of built-in and standard
|
||||
modules. These are documented in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/index.html#library-index"><span class="std std-ref">The Python Standard Library</span></a>. A few built-in modules
|
||||
are mentioned when they interact in a significant way with the language
|
||||
definition.</p>
|
||||
<section id="alternate-implementations">
|
||||
<span id="implementations"></span><h2><span class="section-number">1.1. </span>Alternate Implementations<a class="headerlink" href="#alternate-implementations" title="Link to this heading">¶</a></h2>
|
||||
<p>Though there is one Python implementation which is by far the most popular,
|
||||
there are some alternate implementations which are of particular interest to
|
||||
different audiences.</p>
|
||||
<p>Known implementations include:</p>
|
||||
<dl class="simple">
|
||||
<dt>CPython</dt><dd><p>This is the original and most-maintained implementation of Python, written in C.
|
||||
New language features generally appear here first.</p>
|
||||
</dd>
|
||||
<dt>Jython</dt><dd><p>Python implemented in Java. This implementation can be used as a scripting
|
||||
language for Java applications, or can be used to create applications using the
|
||||
Java class libraries. It is also often used to create tests for Java libraries.
|
||||
More information can be found at <a class="reference external" href="https://www.jython.org/">the Jython website</a>.</p>
|
||||
</dd>
|
||||
<dt>Python for .NET</dt><dd><p>This implementation actually uses the CPython implementation, but is a managed
|
||||
.NET application and makes .NET libraries available. It was created by Brian
|
||||
Lloyd. For more information, see the <a class="reference external" href="https://pythonnet.github.io/">Python for .NET home page</a>.</p>
|
||||
</dd>
|
||||
<dt>IronPython</dt><dd><p>An alternate Python for .NET. Unlike Python.NET, this is a complete Python
|
||||
implementation that generates IL, and compiles Python code directly to .NET
|
||||
assemblies. It was created by Jim Hugunin, the original creator of Jython. For
|
||||
more information, see <a class="reference external" href="https://ironpython.net/">the IronPython website</a>.</p>
|
||||
</dd>
|
||||
<dt>PyPy</dt><dd><p>An implementation of Python written completely in Python. It supports several
|
||||
advanced features not found in other implementations like stackless support
|
||||
and a Just in Time compiler. One of the goals of the project is to encourage
|
||||
experimentation with the language itself by making it easier to modify the
|
||||
interpreter (since it is written in Python). Additional information is
|
||||
available on <a class="reference external" href="https://pypy.org/">the PyPy project’s home page</a>.</p>
|
||||
</dd>
|
||||
</dl>
|
||||
<p>Each of these implementations varies in some way from the language as documented
|
||||
in this manual, or introduces specific information beyond what’s covered in the
|
||||
standard Python documentation. Please refer to the implementation-specific
|
||||
documentation to determine what else you need to know about the specific
|
||||
implementation you’re using.</p>
|
||||
</section>
|
||||
<section id="notation">
|
||||
<span id="id2"></span><h2><span class="section-number">1.2. </span>Notation<a class="headerlink" href="#notation" title="Link to this heading">¶</a></h2>
|
||||
<p id="index-0">The descriptions of lexical analysis and syntax use a modified
|
||||
<a class="reference external" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backus%E2%80%93Naur_form">Backus–Naur form (BNF)</a> grammar
|
||||
notation. This uses the following style of definition:</p>
|
||||
<pre>
|
||||
<strong id="grammar-token-notation-name">name</strong> ::= <a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-notation-lc_letter"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lc_letter</span></code></a> (<a class="reference internal" href="#grammar-token-notation-lc_letter"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lc_letter</span></code></a> | "_")*
|
||||
<strong id="grammar-token-notation-lc_letter">lc_letter</strong> ::= "a"..."z"
|
||||
</pre>
|
||||
<p>The first line says that a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">name</span></code> is an <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lc_letter</span></code> followed by a sequence
|
||||
of zero or more <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lc_letter</span></code>s and underscores. An <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lc_letter</span></code> in turn is
|
||||
any of the single characters <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'a'</span></code> through <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'z'</span></code>. (This rule is actually
|
||||
adhered to for the names defined in lexical and grammar rules in this document.)</p>
|
||||
<p>Each rule begins with a name (which is the name defined by the rule) and
|
||||
<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">::=</span></code>. A vertical bar (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">|</span></code>) is used to separate alternatives; it is the
|
||||
least binding operator in this notation. A star (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*</span></code>) means zero or more
|
||||
repetitions of the preceding item; likewise, a plus (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">+</span></code>) means one or more
|
||||
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|
||||
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|
||||
and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">+</span></code> operators bind as tightly as possible; parentheses are used for
|
||||
grouping. Literal strings are enclosed in quotes. White space is only
|
||||
meaningful to separate tokens. Rules are normally contained on a single line;
|
||||
rules with many alternatives may be formatted alternatively with each line after
|
||||
the first beginning with a vertical bar.</p>
|
||||
<p id="index-1">In lexical definitions (as the example above), two more conventions are used:
|
||||
Two literal characters separated by three dots mean a choice of any single
|
||||
character in the given (inclusive) range of ASCII characters. A phrase between
|
||||
angular brackets (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre"><...></span></code>) gives an informal description of the symbol
|
||||
defined; e.g., this could be used to describe the notion of ‘control character’
|
||||
if needed.</p>
|
||||
<p>Even though the notation used is almost the same, there is a big difference
|
||||
between the meaning of lexical and syntactic definitions: a lexical definition
|
||||
operates on the individual characters of the input source, while a syntax
|
||||
definition operates on the stream of tokens generated by the lexical analysis.
|
||||
All uses of BNF in the next chapter (“Lexical Analysis”) are lexical
|
||||
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|
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|
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|
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<section id="top-level-components">
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<span id="top-level"></span><h1><span class="section-number">9. </span>Top-level components<a class="headerlink" href="#top-level-components" title="Link to this heading">¶</a></h1>
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<p id="index-0">The Python interpreter can get its input from a number of sources: from a script
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from a module source file, etc. This chapter gives the syntax used in these
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<span id="programs"></span><h2><span class="section-number">9.1. </span>Complete Python programs<a class="headerlink" href="#complete-python-programs" title="Link to this heading">¶</a></h2>
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<p id="index-2"><span id="index-1"></span>While a language specification need not prescribe how the language interpreter
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|
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except for <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#module-sys" title="sys: Access system-specific parameters and functions."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys</span></code></a> (various system services), <a class="reference internal" href="../library/builtins.html#module-builtins" title="builtins: The module that provides the built-in namespace."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">builtins</span></code></a> (built-in
|
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functions, exceptions and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>) and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/__main__.html#module-__main__" title="__main__: The environment where top-level code is run. Covers command-line interfaces, import-time behavior, and ``__name__ == '__main__'``."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__main__</span></code></a>. The latter is used to
|
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provide the local and global namespace for execution of the complete program.</p>
|
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<p>The syntax for a complete Python program is that for file input, described in
|
||||
the next section.</p>
|
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<p id="index-3">The interpreter may also be invoked in interactive mode; in this case, it does
|
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not read and execute a complete program but reads and executes one statement
|
||||
(possibly compound) at a time. The initial environment is identical to that of
|
||||
a complete program; each statement is executed in the namespace of
|
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<a class="reference internal" href="../library/__main__.html#module-__main__" title="__main__: The environment where top-level code is run. Covers command-line interfaces, import-time behavior, and ``__name__ == '__main__'``."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__main__</span></code></a>.</p>
|
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<p id="index-4">A complete program can be passed to the interpreter
|
||||
in three forms: with the <a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-c"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-c</span></code></a> <em>string</em> command line option, as a file
|
||||
passed as the first command line argument, or as standard input. If the file
|
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or standard input is a tty device, the interpreter enters interactive mode;
|
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otherwise, it executes the file as a complete program.</p>
|
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</section>
|
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<section id="file-input">
|
||||
<span id="id1"></span><h2><span class="section-number">9.2. </span>File input<a class="headerlink" href="#file-input" title="Link to this heading">¶</a></h2>
|
||||
<p>All input read from non-interactive files has the same form:</p>
|
||||
<pre>
|
||||
<strong id="grammar-token-python-grammar-file_input">file_input</strong> ::= (NEWLINE | <a class="reference internal" href="compound_stmts.html#grammar-token-python-grammar-statement"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">statement</span></code></a>)*
|
||||
</pre>
|
||||
<p>This syntax is used in the following situations:</p>
|
||||
<ul class="simple">
|
||||
<li><p>when parsing a complete Python program (from a file or from a string);</p></li>
|
||||
<li><p>when parsing a module;</p></li>
|
||||
<li><p>when parsing a string passed to the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#exec" title="exec"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">exec()</span></code></a> function;</p></li>
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|
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<section id="interactive-input">
|
||||
<span id="interactive"></span><h2><span class="section-number">9.3. </span>Interactive input<a class="headerlink" href="#interactive-input" title="Link to this heading">¶</a></h2>
|
||||
<p>Input in interactive mode is parsed using the following grammar:</p>
|
||||
<pre>
|
||||
<strong id="grammar-token-python-grammar-interactive_input">interactive_input</strong> ::= [<a class="reference internal" href="compound_stmts.html#grammar-token-python-grammar-stmt_list"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">stmt_list</span></code></a>] NEWLINE | <a class="reference internal" href="compound_stmts.html#grammar-token-python-grammar-compound_stmt"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">compound_stmt</span></code></a> NEWLINE
|
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|
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<p>Note that a (top-level) compound statement must be followed by a blank line in
|
||||
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|
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</section>
|
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<section id="expression-input">
|
||||
<span id="id2"></span><h2><span class="section-number">9.4. </span>Expression input<a class="headerlink" href="#expression-input" title="Link to this heading">¶</a></h2>
|
||||
<p id="index-6"><span id="index-5"></span><a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#eval" title="eval"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">eval()</span></code></a> is used for expression input. It ignores leading whitespace. The
|
||||
string argument to <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#eval" title="eval"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">eval()</span></code></a> must have the following form:</p>
|
||||
<pre>
|
||||
<strong id="grammar-token-python-grammar-eval_input">eval_input</strong> ::= <a class="reference internal" href="expressions.html#grammar-token-python-grammar-expression_list"><code class="xref docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">expression_list</span></code></a> NEWLINE*
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<li><a class="reference internal" href="#">9. Top-level components</a><ul>
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<li><a class="reference internal" href="#complete-python-programs">9.1. Complete Python programs</a></li>
|
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<li><a class="reference internal" href="#file-input">9.2. File input</a></li>
|
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<li><a class="reference internal" href="#interactive-input">9.3. Interactive input</a></li>
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|
|
||||
</li>
|
||||
<li class="right">
|
||||
<label class="theme-selector-label">
|
||||
Theme
|
||||
<select class="theme-selector" oninput="activateTheme(this.value)">
|
||||
<option value="auto" selected>Auto</option>
|
||||
<option value="light">Light</option>
|
||||
<option value="dark">Dark</option>
|
||||
</select>
|
||||
</label> |</li>
|
||||
|
||||
</ul>
|
||||
</div>
|
||||
<div class="footer">
|
||||
©
|
||||
<a href="../copyright.html">
|
||||
|
||||
Copyright
|
||||
|
||||
</a>
|
||||
2001-2025, Python Software Foundation.
|
||||
<br />
|
||||
This page is licensed under the Python Software Foundation License Version 2.
|
||||
<br />
|
||||
Examples, recipes, and other code in the documentation are additionally licensed under the Zero Clause BSD License.
|
||||
<br />
|
||||
|
||||
See <a href="/license.html">History and License</a> for more information.<br />
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
<br />
|
||||
|
||||
The Python Software Foundation is a non-profit corporation.
|
||||
<a href="https://www.python.org/psf/donations/">Please donate.</a>
|
||||
<br />
|
||||
<br />
|
||||
Last updated on Apr 08, 2025 (14:33 UTC).
|
||||
|
||||
<a href="/bugs.html">Found a bug</a>?
|
||||
|
||||
<br />
|
||||
|
||||
Created using <a href="https://www.sphinx-doc.org/">Sphinx</a> 8.2.3.
|
||||
</div>
|
||||
|
||||
</body>
|
||||
</html>
|
||||
Reference in New Issue
Block a user